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World Development Volume 145, Issue 9, September 2021 1. Title: Economic, pro-social and pro-environmental factors influencing participation in an incentive-based conservation program in Bolivia Authors: Manon Authelet, Julie Subervie, Patrick Meyfroidt, Nigel Asquith, Driss Ezzine-de-Blas Abstract: The effectiveness of incentive-based conservation programs depends on how they influence and interact with multiple motivations of the participants. Here, we studied an incentive-based program for forest conservation in Bolivia – called “Reciprocal Watershared Agreements” – that mixes material compensations with pro-social and pro-environmental motivations as a way to reduce crowding-out of intrinsic motivations and to increase participation. Based on a sample of 470 households who were offered the program, we studied household characteristics that influenced (i) the probability of participation in the program, (ii) the intensity of the participation, measured as the area allocated in the agreement, and (iii) the modality of participation, measured as the probability of participation in the different types of agreements. We found that owning property titles, having large forested land with low conservation opportunity cost, agricultural equipment and off-farm incomes seem to favour participation. In addition, the probability of participation increases with some pro-social factors, such as a deeper or older integration into social networks, and greater compliance to social norms of reciprocity. We also found that a lack of trust in public institutions can increase both the likelihood and the intensity of participation, as can certain pro-environmental factors, such as awareness of environmental problems, knowledge about potential solutions to solve them and perception of the gains associated with the conservation of ecosystem services. Finally, we found that feeling some individual responsibility for environmental issues and some difficulty in performing pro-environmental options may increase participation into more restrictive agreements. Our results thus highlight the factors that could increase uptake and factors on which programs might focus in order to have a greater impact on pro-environmental behaviours. They also suggest that incentive-based program can be designed to take advantage of pro-social and pro-environmental motivations as strongly as of economic ones. 2. Title: Friends and benefits? Endogenous rotating savings and credit associations as alternative for women’s empowerment in India Authors: Ashish Kumar Sedai, Ramaa Vasudevan, Anita Alves Pena Abstract: This study examines the effects of Rotating Savings and Credit Associations (ROSCAs) on women’s socio-economic freedom and autonomy at the national level in India. We compare ROSCAs to agency based micro-credit schemes and analyze their effects using nationally representative longitudinal gender-disaggregated data from 2005 to 2012. Building on a theoretical model of household savings and spousal bargaining power, we use individual fixed effects and instrumental variable regressions to test the theoretical predictions. Results show that ROSCA membership increases the likelihood of women’s cash in hand for expenditure by 1.7 percentage points, say in major purchase decisions by 3.9 percentage points and fertility choice by 4.7 percentage points. These margins exceed those for exogenous micro-credit schemes and are robust to sensitivity tests. This study is the first to contrast ROSCAs with other micro-credit schemes at the national level. We propose scaling up and associating longstanding ROSCAs with self-help groups for more inclusive development. 3. Title: Digital platforms and institutional voids in developing countries: The case of ride-hailing markets Authors: Richard Heeks, Juan Erasmo Gomez-Morantes, Mark Graham, Kelle Howson, ... Jean-Paul Van Belle Abstract: Institutional voids – shortcomings in the institutional functions required by markets – have particularly hampered developing countries. Filling those voids has been widely identified as a strategy for businesses and in this paper we analyse the institutional actions of digital platform companies. Specifically and through primary research, we analyse the impact of e-hailing platforms (Uber, Bolt and EasyTaxi) in Colombia and South Africa on ride-hailing markets characterised by institutional voids. Alongside the void-filling discussed in the literature, we identify three other institutional strategies of these businesses: they also maintain and expand and create institutional voids. The platform companies’ institutional work has formed a market that is more efficient, effective, complete and formalised. At the same time, though, they have institutionalised problematic behaviours and significant inequalities. They have done this by internally institutionalising – within the digital platform and in their broader business model – previously-distributed market functions and power. We suggest some practical actions to address the downsides of platformisation through the filling of ongoing voids, and we identify some research priorities for future studies of institutional voids and platforms in developing countries. 4. Title: Food insecurity and compound environmental shocks in Nepal: Implications for a changing climate Authors: Heather Randell, Chengsheng Jiang, Xin-Zhong Liang, Raghu Murtugudde, Amir Sapkota Abstract: Food insecurity is a key global health challenge that is likely to be exacerbated by climate change. Though climate change is associated with an increased frequency of extreme weather events, little is known about how multiple environmental shocks in close succession interact to impact household health and well-being. In this paper, we assess how earthquake exposure followed by monsoon rainfall anomalies affect food insecurity in Nepal. We link food security data from the 2016 Nepal Demographic and Health Survey to data on shaking intensity during the 2015 Gorkha earthquake and rainfall anomalies during the 2015 monsoon season. We then exploit spatial variation in exposure to the earthquake and monsoon rainfall anomalies to isolate their independent and compound effects. We find that earthquake exposure alone was not associated with an increased likelihood of food insecurity, likely due in part to effective food aid distribution. However, the effects of rainfall anomalies differed by severity of earthquake exposure. Among households minimally impacted by the earthquake, low rainfall was associated with increased food insecurity, likely due to lower agricultural productivity in drought conditions. Among households that experienced at least moderate shaking, greater rainfall was positively associated with food insecurity, particularly in steep, mountainous areas. In these locations, rainfall events disproportionately increased landslides, which damaged roads, disrupted distribution of food aid, and destroyed agricultural land and assets. Additional research on the social impacts of compound environmental shocks is needed to inform adaptation strategies that work to improve well-being in the face of climate change. 5. Title: New food regime geographies: Scale, state, labor Authors: Jostein Jakobsen Abstract: Food regime analysis is a prominent approach to the role of food and agriculture in global capitalism. Yet recent advancement within the approach has not received as much attention as it deserves outside of specialized circles of agrarian research. Food regime scholarship has over the last few years taken several steps to move away from its previous prevalent emphasis on macro-scale phenomena to make it more applicable to empirical research on agricultural development. This article reviews recent scholarship in food regime analysis to bring out central aspects of such advancement. In particular, this review discusses three key aspects of recent food regime scholarship: First, I find an increased problematizing of spatiality and scale with calls for downscaling the food regime approach. Second, I find a rising centrality of theorizing and analyzing the state. Third, despite these advancements, an important gap remains in sustained attention to questions of labor. I call for further scrutiny of labor in order to bring food regime analysis forwards. 6. Title: COVID-19, poverty and inclusive development Authors: Joyeeta Gupta, Maarten Bavinck, Mirjam Ros-Tonen, Kwabena Asubonteng, ... Hebe Verrest Abstract: The COVID-19 epidemic provides yet another reason to prioritize inclusive development. Current response strategies of the global community and countries expose a low level of solidarity with poorer nations and poorer people in all nations. Against this background, this paper addresses the question: What are the development challenges that the COVID-19 pandemic lays bare and what lessons can be learnt for the way recovery processes are designed? Using an inclusive development and DPSIR lens to assess the literature, our study finds that, first, the current response prioritises the ‘state’ and ‘impact’ concerns of wealthier classes at the expense of the remainder of the world population. Second, responses have ignored underlying ‘drivers’ and ‘pressures’, instead aiming at a quick recovery of the economy. Third, a return to business-as-usual using government funding will lead to a vicious cycle of further ecological degradation, socio-economic inequality and domestic abuse that assist in exacerbating the drivers of the pandemic. We argue instead for an inclusive development approach that leads to a virtuous cycle by emphasizing human health, well-being and ecosystem regeneration. We conclude that the lost years for development did not commence in 2020 with the onset of COVID-19; the downward trend has actually been waxing over the past three decades. From this perspective, COVID-19 may be the shock needed to put the last first and transform vicious into virtuous cycles of inclusive development. 7. Title: The effect of peer-to-peer risk information on potential migrants – Evidence from a randomized controlled trial in Senegal Authors: Jasper Tjaden, Felipe Alexander Dunsch Abstract: In response to mounting evidence on the dangers of irregular migration from Africa to Europe, the number of information campaigns which aim to raise awareness about the potential risks has rapidly increased. Governments, international organizations and civil society organizations implement a variety of campaigns to counter the spread of misinformation accelerated by smuggling and trafficking networks. The evidence on the effects of such information interventions on potential migrants remains limited and largely anecdotal. More generally, the role of risk perceptions in the decision-making process of potential irregular migrants is rarely explicitly tested, despite the fact that the concept of risk pervades conventional migration models, particularly in the field of economics. We address this gap by assessing the effects of a peer-to-peer information intervention on the perceptions, knowledge and intentions of potential migrants in Dakar, Senegal, using a randomized controlled trial design. The results show that – three months after the intervention – peer-to-peer information events increase potential migrants’ subjective information levels, raise risk awareness, and reduce intentions to migrate irregularly. We find no substantial effects on factual migration knowledge. We discuss how the effects may be driven by the trust and identification-enhancing nature of peer-to-peer communication. 8. Title: Large farms, large benefits? Sustainability certification among family farms and agro-industrial producers in Peru Authors: Eva-Marie Meemken Abstract: Do sustainability standards improve socioeconomic conditions and environmental performance among participant farms? While numerous studies have addressed this question, results are mixed, and the external and internal validity of the available evidence is limited. Moreover, the extant literature has mainly focused on smallholder farms. Our contribution is twofold. First, this is the first paper to use nationally representative panel data to explore the proliferation and implications of sustainability certification. Second, we consider both small (family-operated) and large (agro-industrial) farms. We use data from Peru’s National Agricultural Survey and panel and pseudo panel methods. In terms of outcome variables, we focus on annual farm income and farm practices. Although sustainability standards rhetorically emphasize small farms, we find that certification is much more common among large farms than among small farms. Further, certified farms are geographically clustered, which confirms previous findings. Results also show that certification is associated with higher farm incomes and changes in farm practices among large but not among small farms. These differences are not attributable to farm size alone but likely associated with other characteristics of large farms such as crop choices and type of standard. We conclude that the importance and potential of certification in the large farm sector have been underappreciated and should receive more scientific attention in the future. 9. Title: Asian Infrastructure Investment Bank as an instrument for Chinese influence? Supplementary versus remedial multilateralism Authors: Ayse Kaya, Christopher Kilby, Jonathan Kay Abstract: Starting even before its founding in 2015, the Asian Infrastructure Investment Bank (AIIB) has attracted controversy. Critics—especially the U.S. administration—claim the bank is an instrument of China intended to advance narrow Chinese interests and thereby undermine U.S. influence globally. But does AIIB lending show any Chinese influence? Analysis on AIIB lending patterns has been scant. Based on AIIB loan data through the end of 2019, our analysis suggests the AIIB is facilitating “remedial multilateralism” for China, whereby countries economically distant from China have privileged access to AIIB loans. This is contrary to expectations from “supplementary multilateralism,” whereby the multilateral setting reinforces existing bilateral ties. The paper advances the notions of supplementary and remedial multilateralism and provides a comprehensive analysis of AIIB loans in the first four years of the institution’s operation. It, thus, contributes to the understanding of how China’s rise is affecting the landscape of multilateral development finance. 10. Title: Gender-differentiated impacts of plant clinics on maize productivity and food security: Evidence from Zambia Authors: Justice A. Tambo, Mathews Matimelo, Mathias Ndhlovu, Fredrick Mbugua, Noah Phiri Abstract: The United Nation’s declaration of 2020 as the International Year of Plant Health underscores the crucial role of crop protection in achieving the sustainable development goals. In this article, we analyse the gendered impacts of plant clinics—an innovative extension approach that aims to help smallholder farmers to lose less of their crops to pests through the provision of plant health diagnostic and advisory services. In particular, we investigate whether male and female farmers accrue similar benefits, in terms of technology adoption, maize productivity and food security, from participating in plant clinics. We use gender-disaggregated plot-level data from maize producers in Zambia. Applying doubly robust estimators, we find that participation in plant clinics stimulates the adoption of multiple pest management strategies, which boost maize yield and income by 14% and 27% respectively, and ultimately help to stave off food insecurity. A disaggregated analysis shows that both male and female farmers achieve positive outcomes from using plant clinic services, but the effects are disproportionately greater for male farmers. We also observe heterogeneous impacts for female household heads and female spouses, reflecting differences in decision-making power within the household. The findings suggest that plant clinics can play a significant role in helping male and female farmers address crop health problems and reduce transitory food insecurity, but female participants (particularly female spouses) will need additional support if the goal is to bridge the gender gap in agricultural productivity. 11. Title: Associations between hurricane exposure, food insecurity, and microfinance; a cross-sectional study in Haiti Authors: Sina Kianersi, Reginal Jules, Yijia Zhang, Maya Luetke, Molly Rosenberg Abstract: Natural disaster and food insecurity are prevalent in Haiti. Natural disasters may cause long-term food insecurity. Microfinance programs may provide resilience against this outcome. The objectives of this study were 1) to assess the association between the impact of Hurricane Matthew and long-term food insecurity and 2) to understand whether this association varies by participants membership in a microfinance program.  In 2017 2018, we interviewed 304 Haitian female microfinance clients. We used log-binomial regression to evaluate the association between hurricane Matthew impact and long-term food insecurity, with evaluation of effect modification by timing of microfinance exposure. We found that one year after the hurricane, participants who were severely impacted by the hurricane were more likely to report poor dietary diversity and moderate to severe household hunger, compared to the less severely impacted participants. Both associations became insignificant among those who received their first microfinance loan before the hurricane. Natural disasters like hurricanes are associated with long-term food insecurity at individual and household levels. Microfinance programs might improve post-hurricane long-term food security. 12. Title: The forest transition as a window of opportunity to change the governance of common-pool resources: The case of Mexico’s Mixteca Alta Authors: Matthew Lorenzen, Quetzalcóatl Orozco-Ramírez, Rosario Ramírez-Santiago, Gustavo G. Garza Abstract: The notion of windows of opportunity, developed in the literature on adaptive governance, refers to the existence of circumstances or events that trigger and promote governance changes to manage ecosystems and common-pool resources more sustainably. Research has largely focused on windows of opportunity such as natural disasters and environmental crises. This paper contends that windows of opportunity should be viewed with a wider lens and include other phenomena that do not necessarily involve a growing pressure or negative impact on ecosystems and common-pool resources. Based on information gathered from interviews and the analysis of official statistics and land use/cover maps, we first show that our study area in Mexico’s Mixteca Alta region, in the state of Oaxaca, has experienced a recovery of woody vegetation—a forest transition—through secondary succession because of depopulation, deagrarianization, agricultural intensification, the decline or change in livestock, and the decline in the use of farmland, grazing lands, and local natural resources. Building on these results, we examine how these demographic, socioeconomic, and land-use changes, along with the emergence of new national institutions and local non-governmental organizations focused on the environment, provided a window of opportunity for communities to change the governance of their forests and grazing lands through the establishment of rules to limit grazing and logging, while also carrying out reforestations. These processes contributed to the further expansion of wooded areas in a positive feedback loop. 13. Title: A micro-based approach to evaluate the effect of water supply on health in Uganda Authors: Raymond Boadi Frempong, Lucas Kitzmüller, David Stadelmann Abstract: This paper proposes a micro-based approach to investigate the impact of improved water provision on individual health outcomes in rural Uganda. We merge household and individual panel datasets with sub-county level administrative data on water supply projects. Our approach allows us to estimate fixed-effect panel data models which use temporal and spatial variation at the sub-county level as identifying variation. We find evidence that the installation of improved water sources leads to higher reported improved water usage, and shorter water collection times. However, increasing the sub-county rate of improved water sources per capita does not seem to be sufficient to lead to a statistically significant effect in the likelihood of individuals suffering from symptoms of illness associated with inadequate water supply. We argue that our micro-based approach provides a cost-effective means of evaluating development projects. The approach is scalable, i.e. it can be applied to other settings and countries. 14. Title: Public good provision and democracy: Evidence from an experiment with farmer groups in Malawi Authors: Vesall Nourani, Annemie Maertens, Hope Michelson Abstract: Farmer groups are the cornerstone of many agricultural projects in low income countries. The success of such projects crucially depends on the ability of group members to cooperate. We conducted a series of public goods experiments to study within-group cooperation in Malawian farmer groups. We combine results from these experiments with survey data and qualitative interviews. Our results shed light on the heterogeneous capacity of groups to cooperate. We find that democratically run groups, in particular those with close social ties, are more cooperative compared to groups with leader-driven decision-making. Focus groups indicate that this democracy is deliberative in nature, characterized by open discussion that aggregates preferences, increases common knowledge, and creates goodwill. A second set of experiments in which we experimentally vary the decision-making processes yields quantitatively similar results in arbitrary groupings of farmers and null results in pre-existing groups with established decision-making procedures, demonstrating the stickiness of institutional rules. Our results imply that group formation and functioning needs to be included in the design phase of agricultural projects in low income countries. 15. Title: Between a rock and a hard place: The burdens of uncontrolled fire for smallholders across the tropics Authors: Rachel Carmenta, Federico Cammelli, Wolfram Dressler, Camila Verbicaro, Julie G. Zaehringer Abstract: Once fire-resistant rainforests are becoming fire prone. Uncontrolled fires reflect new ecologies of the Anthropocene, driven by interactions of multiple actors and sectors across scales. They threaten the ecological integrity of tropical forests, impact global climate regimes and importantly cause considerable social and economic burdens. Numerous smallholder farming communities throughout the forested tropics experience the immediate place-based damages of uncontrolled fires and increasingly flammable landscapes. However, these burdens remain largely ‘invisible’ as leading narratives concentrate on losses accrued at aggregate scales, including to climate and biodiversity. Rather, smallholder farmers are often cast as culprits of contagion rooted in colonial condemnation of their customary fire-based agricultural practices. We use an environmental justice lens, notably the dimensions of recognition and distribution, to reveal the distributional burdens of uncontrolled fires for these land managers. We use empirical data from four case studies in three countries: Brazil, Madagascar and the Philippines, to explore the i) burdens of uncontrolled fire, ii) changing risks, iii) drivers and iv) responses to uncontrolled fire, and finally, the v) level of smallholder dependence on intentional fire. We show that place-based burdens of uncontrolled landscape fire are significant, including in landscapes where fire frequency is low. Burdens are both material and non-material and include infringements on food security, health, livelihoods, social relations and the burden of prohibitive fire policy itself. Equitable responses to uncontrolled fires must be sensitive to the distinctions between fire types. Further, we suggest that through bringing visibility to the place-based burdens of uncontrolled fires, we can begin to co-design resilient responses that avoid placing the final burden of risk reduction on to marginalized smallholder farming communities. 16. Title: Hiding behind the veil of ashes: Social capital in the wake of natural disasters Authors: Victor Stephane Abstract: This paper investigates the impact of natural disasters on social capital. By heterogeneously affecting people in a community, natural disasters create a temporary information asymmetry on their post-disaster income. Using an original dataset collected in rural Ecuador, we provide suggestive evidence that households use this asymmetric information to pretend to be poorer than they actually are, in order to escape from solidarity mechanisms in the aftermath of the shock. The magnitude of this effect decreases with the level of wealth inequality in the community and vanishes in the most unequal communities where bilateral cooperation is rather fostered. 17. Title: Critical junctures, agrarian change, and the (re)production of vulnerability in a marginalised Indigenous society Authors: Guy Jackson Abstract: Marginalised agrarian societies are suggested to be the most vulnerable to environmental hazards and other perturbations. There are competing explanations for this phenomenon, which include: a lack of development, global environmental change, and the development process itself, or capitalism more specifically. All three causal arguments are compelling, but typically offer only partial explanations. With most societies experiencing significant capitalist-driven agrarian change over the last few centuries (e.g., depeasantisation, dispossession, proletarianisation), the critical agrarian change literature is biased towards these studies. Here I explore one of the most marginalised societies in Papua New Guinea, the Bedamuni People of Western Province. After 60 years of Western contact, at the time of fieldwork (2018), they remained shifting horticulturalist who had not been disposed of their land, had no commodity production and very limited opportunities for paid work. By exploring agrarian change within Bedamuni society since first Western contact (1962) and the arrival of missionaries (1968), and employing the concept of critical junctures, I critically unpack some of the root causes of heightened socioecological vulnerability. In the Bedamuni case study, and likely in many other societies, it is not just lack of development, environmental change, or the development process itself, it is all these things, and more, concomitantly. With the resource and commodity frontier almost upon them, and many Bedamuni desiring it to come, it is critical to understand the root causes of growing hunger. I argue that the development approach being driven by powerful actors will not meaningfully address this crisis and, in fact, may exacerbate the processes and factors that have produced heightened socioecological vulnerability. This paper problematises essentialist, universal narratives about the drivers of vulnerability in marginalised Indigenous societies in the global South. Whilst universal explanations can be insightful, we must not forget the centrality and specificity of space and place in development research. 18. Title: On the capacity to absorb public investment: How much is too much? Authors: Daniel Gurara, Kangni Kpodar, Andrea F. Presbitero, Dawit Tessema Abstract: While expanding public investment can contribute to fill infrastructure gaps, scaling up too much and too fast often leads to inefficient outcomes. This paper rationalizes this outcome looking at the association between cost inflation and public investment in a large sample of road construction projects in developing countries. Consistent with the presence of absorptive capacity constraints, our results show a non-linear U-shaped relationship between public investment and project costs. Unit costs increase once public investment is close to 10% of GDP. This threshold is lower (about 7% of GDP) in countries with low investment efficiency and, in general, the effect of investment scaling up on costs is especially strong during investment booms. 19. Title: Corruption and cheating: Evidence from rural Thailand Authors: Olaf Hübler, Melanie Koch, Lukas Menkhoff, Ulrich Schmidt Abstract: This study tests the prediction that perceived corruption reduces ethical behavior. Integrating a standard “cheating” experiment into a broad household survey in rural Thailand, we find tentative support for this prediction: respondents who perceive corruption in state affairs are more likely to cheat and, thus, to fortify the negative consequences of corruption. Interestingly, there is a small group of non-conformers. The main relation is robust to consideration of socio-demographic, attitudinal, and situational control variables. Attendance of others at the cheating experiment, stimulating the reputational concern to be seen as honest, reduces cheating, thus indicating transparency as a remedy. 20. Title: The social contract as a tool of analysis: Introduction to the special issue on “Framing the evolution of new social contracts in Middle Eastern and North African countries” Authors: Markus Loewe, Tina Zintl, Annabelle Houdret Abstract: The term “social contract” is increasingly used in social science literature to describe sets of state-society relations – in particular with reference to the Middle East and North Africa (MENA). Nevertheless, the term has thus far remained insufficiently conceptualized and its potential to inform a systematic analysis of contemporary states has been underutilized. This article contributes to the filling of this gap. It defines social contracts as sets of formal and informal agreements between societal groups and their sovereign (government or other actor in power) on rights and obligations toward each other. We argue that social contracts are partly informal institutions, which are meant to make state-society interactions more predictable and thereby politics more stable. Their effectiveness depends on their substance (deliverables exchanged between government and society), scope (the actors involved and the geographic range of influence) and temporal dimension (beginning, evolution, and duration). Social contracts can differ substantially in all three dimensions. This approach complements established theories of comparative politics and sharpens the perspective on state-society relations. It helps to (i) compare state-society relations in different countries, (ii) track changes within one country, (iii) find out when and why social contracts are broken or even revoked, (iv) uncover how external players affect state-society relations, and (v) analyze how state-society relations can be Pareto improved. Against this background, this article shows that after independence, MENA countries had quite similar social contracts, which were based on the provision of social benefits rather than political participation. We argue that they degenerated steadily after 1985 due to increasing populations and budgetary problems. The Arab uprisings in 2010–11 were an expression of discontent with a situation in which governments provided neither political participation nor social benefits, like employment. Since then, social contracts in MENA countries have developed in different directions, and their long-term stability is questionable. We address the question of how they can be transformed to become more inclusive and therefore more stable. 21. Title: The COVID-19 crisis and Amazonia’s indigenous people: Implications for conservation and global health Authors: Amy Y. Vittor, Gabriel Zorello Laporta, Maria Anice Mureb Sallum, Robert T. Walker Abstract: Ecosystem health and zoonotic diseases are closely interwoven. Even as we grapple with the SARS-Coronavirus-2 pandemic, which may have its origins in wildlife, weakening environmental policies in the Brazilian Amazon are elevating the risk of additional zoonotic spillover events. We examine the links between deforestation and disease emergence in the Amazon, as illustrated by outbreaks of yellow fever virus, Venezuelan equine encephalitis virus, and Oropouche virus. It has been well established that in Brazil, indigenous territories exhibit lower rates of forest conversion and degradation than in areas designated for sustainable use. In this way, Amazonia’s indigenous tribes promote public health while sustaining ecosystem services. However, indigenous land rights are under attack due to current policies enabling illegal land grabbing, mining and logging. Further adding to the existential struggle of indigenous tribes, malaria and SARS-Coronavirus-2 are wreaking havoc on these vulnerable populations. There is a critical need for protection of indigenous people's rights and health, as well as a sustained effort to support the study of mechanisms underlying anthropogenic land use change and zoonotic disease risk. 22. Title: Lack of access to clean fuel and piped water and children’s educational outcomes in rural India Authors: Pallavi Choudhuri, Sonalde Desai Abstract: Investments in clean fuel and piped water are often recommended in developing countries on health grounds. This paper examines an alternative channel, the relationship between piped water and access to liquefied petroleum gas (LPG) and children’s educational outcomes. Results based on the second round of the India Human Development Survey (2011–12) for rural India show that children aged 6–14 years, living in households that rely on free collection of water and cooking fuel, have lower mathematics scores and benefit from lower educational expenditures than children living in households that do not collect water and fuel. Moreover, gender inequality in this unpaid work burden also matters. In households where the burden of collection is disproportionately borne by women, child outcomes are significantly lower, particularly for boys. The endogeneity of choice to collect or purchase water and cooking fuel are modeled via Heckman selection and the entropy balancing method. 23. Title: Mental and physical health impacts of water/sanitation infrastructure in First Nations communities in Canada: An analysis of the Regional Health Survey Authors: Melanie O'Gorman Abstract: In this paper I estimate the magnitude of association between water/sanitation infrastructure and health/well-being for First Nations individuals living on reserve in Canada in 2002/3, 2008/10 and 2015/6. I find that access to an indoor water supply is associated with an 80% reduction in the odds of reporting depression. In-home sanitation is associated with a reduction in depression, gastrointestinal illness and kidney problems. These results suggest that large health benefits can be achieved through increased infrastructure investment in First Nations across Canada. Existing houses should also be retrofitted to ensure all homes have access to running water/sanitation. 24. Title: Trafficking as settler colonialism in eastern Panama: Linking the Americas via illicit commerce, clientelism, and land cover change Authors: Colectivo Darién Abstract: Rural spaces are garnering new attention in illicit economies. At the confluence of the American continents, illicit commodities are being moved through rural Panama’s communities and iconic Darién forests. Over the last decade, the international media have focused on the uptick in human “migration” while the Panamanian press has chronicled dramatic illegal logging. Less acknowledged is the surge in drug smuggling and arms trafficking. Using media reports and mapping over the last twenty years, we ask how multi-commodity trafficking and human exploitation are remaking rural space. We provide the first synthetic and spatial overview of eastern Panama’s multiple trafficking, showing how it is altering social and environmental relationships. Media reports, many based on government seizures, indicate trafficking routes throughout the region, implying the involvement of much of the local population and resulting in new clientelistic social relationships between traffickers, residents, and the state. Increasingly, trafficking is driving land cover change, diminishing forest cover in private lands, protected areas, and indigenous lands and connecting them via a growing road network. Indigenous peoples’ conservation of forests hampers surveillance and makes their lands ideal for trafficking. This also means that they are the only ethnicity frequently named in the media, threatening indigenous sovereignty and land legalization efforts. We conclude that trafficking is a form of settler colonialism, continuing processes of taking that began in this area of the American mainland centuries ago. Rather than incidentally holding indigenous residents culpable, maligning them in trafficking’s transit area is fundamental to capitalist expansion, integrating it with the country’s dollarized economy, highly developed banking sector, and the canal’s global commerce. The continued transit of people and illegal commodities in eastern Panama is quickly transforming conservation, indigenous sovereignty, and sustainable development. 25. Title: Tourism partnerships: Harnessing tourist compassion to ‘do good’ through community development in Fiji Authors: Emma Hughes, Regina Scheyvens Abstract: Hotels create opportunities for tourists to 'do good' whilst on holiday, for example through participation in hotel-led programmes involving environmental clean-ups or donations to schools, the purchase of community-made products, or taking community and school tours. These initiatives foster in tourists a sense of compassion for communities in tourist destinations, but at the same time, effectively commodify the desire to 'do good'. Critically, initiatives centre predominantly on the gifting of tangible donations whilst precluding any engagement with either the structural causes of inequalities or the broader priorities of destination communities. Case studies are used to explore community perspectives of initiatives led by luxury hotels to support schools in Fiji. Findings highlight the tension between the commodification of tourist desire to give back to destination communities and their limitations in addressing community development priorities. We consider whether tourist compassion can be harnessed to work for communities through tourism partnerships, and reflect upon the kinds of tourism partnerships that might be effective mechanisms for realising the UN 2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development, highlighting the need to delink addressing community needs from the feel-good tourist experience. 26. Title: Parental divorces and children’s educational outcomes in Senegal Authors: Juliette Crespin-Boucaud, Rozenn Hotte Abstract: This paper provides new evidence on the consequences of parental divorce for children in Africa. Using survey data that collected the detailed life histories of Senegalese women and of their children, we investigate how children’s educational outcomes are affected by their parents’ divorce. We use a sibling fixed-effects strategy that allows us to control for all the factors that are common to all children in a family, such as parental preferences regarding education or the level of education of the parents, alleviating concerns of omitted variable bias. We compare children who were old enough to have been enrolled in primary school at the time of the divorce to their younger siblings, for whom enrollment decisions had not yet been made at the time of the divorce. We find that younger siblings were more likely than their older siblings to have attended primary school. This higher level of investment does not persist in the long run: there are no differences between siblings when considering primary school completion. We find that $%'035679ABÄÅÆÎÏ% & íÜʻʻʻ¬»˜ƒun`uSun`Hhicy5OJQJ^Jh
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